ATOMIC THEORIES
Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) July 26, 2015 The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus, who held that everything is composed of "atoms", meaning “uncuttable” which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible. About 400 B.C. Democritus suggested that the properties of these particles also determined the properties of matter. One of those properties was the law of conservation of mass. Note that in 1993 in Olympia I presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics"my discovery of dipolic photons having an "uncuttable" spin S = h/2π . The conference was organized by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri who awarded me an award including this disck of philosopher Democritus, because the dipolic photons invalidate fields (INVALID MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS), and Einstein's relativity. (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY). Near the end of the 18th century, two laws about chemical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The first was the law of conservation of mass, formulated by Lavoisier in 1789, which states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains constant .The second was the law of definite proportions. First proven by the French chemist Proust in 1799. Τhis law states that if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, then the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance. In 1803 Dalton using the atomic theory of Democritus orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures. Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules. The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Avogadro who had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. Avogadro's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. In 1827, Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it. This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory.(See my WRONG AND CORRECT EINSTEIN). DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON AS A SUBATOMIC PARTICLE Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until 1897 when J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays. Thomson concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were composed of very light negatively charged particles called "electrons". Each electron has the elementary charge -e = -1.6/1019 C , which is"uncuttable". Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio and discovered it was 1836 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest atom. Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that the electrons were their building blocks. To explain the overall neutral charge of the atom, he proposed that the electrons were distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge; this was the plum pudding model as the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like plums in a plum pudding . DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEUS Thomson's plum pudding model was disproved in 1909 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center. In the well known Geiger–Marsden experiment Rutherford concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a very tiny volume to produce an electric field sufficiently intense to deflect the alpha particles so strongly. This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model in which a cloud of electrons surrounded a small, compact nucleus of positive charge. Only such a concentration of charge could produce the electric force strong enough to cause the heavy deflection. Later was discovered that for an atom the nucleus consists of Z protons and N neutrons, while for the simplest atom, the hydrogen, the nucleus has only a proton (Z=1) with the elementary charge (+e) . THE BOHR MODEL OF A HYDROGEN-LIKE ATOM In the planetary model of the atom Bohr (1913) for the hydrogen atom applied the electric force Fe of the Coulomb law (1785) between the nucleus and the electron and found the binding energy (E = -13.6 eV) of the system proton-electron, which occurs under the emission of a photon having equal energy E = hν = 13.6 eV. Especially Bohr using the quantum theory of Planck (1900) that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts of energy (E = hν) into his model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance ( r ) from the nucleus being proportional to its energy. For example he found that according to the Coulomb law and the Planck constant h the binding energy E measured in eV of the system proton-electron at the smaller radius r between the nucleus and the electron is given by E = (-13.6)Z2/n2 where Z = 1 and n = 1 In this simple case Bohr used Z = 1 because the nucleus has one proton and the electron circulates the nucleus at the smallest distance r under the so-called quantum number n = 1. Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels. When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency ν proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra). For example in the hydrogen atom the binding energy E = -13.6 eV is equal to the emission of a photon having the same energy E = hν = 13.6 eV. Moreover it explains the ionization energy E = -13.6 eV of Hydrogen, while the second ionization of helium is explained by using Z = 2. It is of interest to note that the experiments of the ionization of hydrogen reject Einstein's invalid mass-energy conservation because the energy of the photon is due not to the mass defect but to the energy of the electron-proton interaction in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Whereas the mass defect turns to the photon mass m = hν/c2. (LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS). However Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron atoms. For example it cannot explain the first ionization energy of the simple helium atom. Worse still, as spectrographic technology improved, additional spectral lines in hydrogen were observed which Bohr's model couldn't explain. DISCOVERY O THE NEW STRUCTURE OF PROTON AND NEUTRON In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and concluded that the hydrogen nuclei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms themselves. From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and Henry Moseley led him to conclude that hydrogen nuclei were singular particles with an elementary charge (+e) and named such particles protons. Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was composed of hitherto unknown neutrally charged particles, which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons". In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, and he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons. However in the absence of a detailed energy about the existing charge distributions in nucleons due to extra charged quarks in nucleons theoretical physicists abandoned the electromagnetic laws in favor of various invalid nuclear theories. Under ths physics crisis I published my paper of 2003 which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by Proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836,15 electrons Neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons QUANTUM MODELS OF THE ATOM In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving particles — particularly subatomic particles such as electrons — exhibit a degree of wave-like behavior. Schrodinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether or not the movement of an electron in an atom could be better explained as a wave rather than as a particle. Schrodinger's equation (1926) describes an electron as a wavefunction instead of as a point particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition. One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrodinger's wavefunction described not the electron but rather all its possible states, and thus could be used to calculate the probability of finding an electron at any given location around the nucleus. This reconciled the two opposing theories of particle versus wave electrons and the idea of wave–particle duality was introduced. This theory stated that the one electron may exhibit the properties of both a wave and a particle. However for describing a system of two electrons like in helium both the Bohr model and the Schrodinger equation could not explain the binding energy. Meanwhile the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron in nuclei led to the abandonment of natural laws in favor of invalid atomic and nuclear theories. DISCOVERY OF THE BINDING ENERGY OF TWO-ELECTRON ATOMS Despite the enormous success of the Bohr model and the quantum mechanics of Schrodinger based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism in explaining the principal features of the hydrogen spectrum and of other one-electron atomic systems, so far, under the abandonment of natural laws neither was able to provide a satisfactory explanation of ionizations of the two-electron atoms. In atomic physics a two-electron atom is a quantum mechanical system consisting of one nucleus with a charge Ze and of just two electrons. This is the first case of many-electron systems. The first few two-electron atoms are: Z =1 : H- hydrogen anion. Z = 2 : He helium atom. Z = 3 : Li+ lithium atom anion. Z = 4 : Be2+ beryllium ion. Z = 5 : B3+ boron. Prior to the development of quantum mechanics, an atom with many electrons was portrayed like the solar system, with the electrons representing the planets circulating about the nuclear “sun”. In the solar system, the gravitational interaction between planets is quite small compared with that between any planet and the very massive sun; interplanetary interactions can, therefore, be treated as small perturbations. However, In the helium atom with two electrons, the interaction energy between the two spinning electrons and between an electron and the nucleus are almost of the same magnitude, and a perturbation approach is inapplicable. In 1925 the two young Dutch physicists Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit discovered the electron spin according to which the peripheral velocity of a spinning electron is greater than the speed of light. Since this discovery invalidates Einstein’s relativity it met much opposition by physicists including Pauli. Under the influence of Einstein’s invalid relativity physicists believed that in nature cannot exist velocities faster than the speed of light. So great physicists like Pauli, Heisenberg, and Dirac abandoned the natural laws of electromagnetism in favor of wrong theories including qualitative approaches under an idea of symmetry properties between the two electrons of opposite spin which lead to many complications. Thus in the “Helium atom-WIKIPEDIA” one reads: “Unlike for hydrogen a closed form solution to the Schrodinger equation for the helium atom has not been found. However various approximations such as the Hartree-Fock method ,can be used to estimate the ground state energy and wave function of atoms”. Note that in Olympia (1993) I presented my discovery of dipolic photons LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS INVALIDATE FIELDS AND RELATIVITY . At the same time in Larissa I tried to find not only the nuclear force and structure but also the coupling of two electrons under the application of the abandoned electromagnetic laws. For example in the photoelectric effect the absorption of light contributed not only to the increase of the electron energy but also to the increase of the electron mass because the particles of light have mass m = hν/c2 . ( See my DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS ). However the electron spin which gives a peripheral velocity greater than the speed of light cannot be affected by the photon absorption. Thus after 10 years I published my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003) and I showed not only my DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR FORCE AND STRUCTURE but also that the peripheral velocity (u >> c) of two spinning electrons with opposite spin gives an attractive magnetic force Fm stronger than the electric repulsion Fe when the two electrons of mass m and charge (-e) are at a very short separation r < 578.8 /1015 m. Because of the antiparallel spin along the radial direction the interaction of the electron charges gives an electromagnetic force Fem = Fe - Fm . Therefore in my research the integration for calculating the mutual Fem led to the following relation: Fem = Fe - Fm = Ke2//r2 - (Ke2/r4)(9h2/16π2m2c2) Of course for Fe = Fm one gets the equilibrium separation ro = 3h/4πmc = 578.8/1015 m. That is, for r < 578.8/1015 m the two electrons of opposite spin exert an attractive electromagnetic force, because the attractive Fm is stronger than the repulsive Fe . Here Fm is a spin-dependent force of short range. As a consequence this situation provides the physical basis for understanding the pairing of two electrons described qualitatively by the Pauli principle, which cannot be applied in the simplest case of the deuteron in nuclear physics, because the binding energy between the two spinning nucleons occurs when the spin is not opposite (S=0) but parallel (S=1). According to the experiments in the case of two electrons with antiparallel spin the presence of a very strong external magnetic field gives parallel spin (S=1) with electric and magnetic repulsions given by Fem = Fe + Fm So according to the well-established laws of electromagnetism after a detailed analysis of paired electrons in two-electron atoms I concluded that at r < 578.8/1015 m a motional EMF produces vibrations of paired electrons. Unfortunately today physicists in the absence of a detailed knowledge believe that the two electrons of two-electron atoms under the Coulomb repulsion between the electrons move not together as one particle but as separated particles possessing the two opposite points of the diameter of the orbit around the nucleus. In fact, the two electrons of opposite spin behave like one particle circulating about the nucleus under the rules of quantum mechanics forming two-electron orbitals in helium, beryllium etc. In my paper “Spin-spin interaction of electrons and also of nucleons create atomic molecular and nuclear structures” published in Ind. J. Th. Phys. (2008) I showed that the positive vibration energy (Ev) described in eV depends on the Ze charge of nucleus as Ev = 16.95Z - 4.1 Of course in the absence of such a vibration energy Ev it is well-known that the ground state energy E described in eV for two orbiting electrons could be given by the Bohr model as E = -27.2 Z2. So the combination of the energies of the Bohr model and the vibration energies due to the opposite spin of two electrons led to my discovery of the ground state energy of two-electron atoms given by E = -27.2 Z2 +16.95 Z - 4.1 For example the laboratory measurement of the ionization energy of H- yields an energy of the ground state E = - 14.35 eV In this case since Z = 1 we get E -27.2 + 16.95 - 4.1 = -14.35 eV In the same way writing for the helium Z = 2 we get E = - 108.8 + 32.9 - 4.1 = -79.0 eV which is equal to the laboratory measurement. In the same way we can calculate the ground state energies for the Z = 3 : Li+ ion , Z = 4 : Be2+ beryllium ion, and Z = 5 : B3+ boron. (See also a large number of my papers for the explanation of ionizations of elements in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS). The discovery of this simple formula based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism was the first fundamental equation for understanding the energies of many-electron atoms, while various theories based on qualitative symmetry properties lead to complications. Category:Fundamental physics concepts